Food Additives Explained: E-Numbers, Preservatives, and What They Actually Do

Walk down any grocery aisle, pick up a packaged food product, and you will find an ingredient list containing names that sound more like chemistry than cooking: sodium benzoate, carrageenan, tocopherol, xanthan gum, ascorbic acid. For many consumers, these unfamiliar names trigger suspicion. If you cannot pronounce it, should you eat it?

The reality is more nuanced than either fearful avoidance or blind trust. Food additives are among the most thoroughly regulated and studied substances in the food supply. Each approved additive has undergone extensive toxicological testing, and regulatory agencies continuously review new evidence. This article provides a comprehensive, evidence-based guide to what food additives actually are, what they do, and what the science says about their safety.

What Are Food Additives?

A food additive is any substance intentionally added to food during production, processing, treatment, packaging, transport, or storage that serves a technical function. This includes preservatives that prevent spoilage, emulsifiers that maintain texture, colorings that enhance appearance, flavor enhancers that improve taste, and many other functional categories.

In the European Union, approved food additives are assigned E-numbers, a classification system maintained by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The "E" stands for Europe, and the number categorizes the additive by function. In the United States, the FDA maintains a list of substances Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) and a separate system for food additive approvals.

E-Number Classification System

E-Number Range	Category
E100-E199	Colors
E200-E299	Preservatives
E300-E399	Antioxidants and acidity regulators
E400-E499	Thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers
E500-E599	pH regulators and anti-caking agents
E600-E699	Flavor enhancers
E700-E799	Antibiotics (restricted)
E900-E999	Glazing agents, sweeteners, and miscellaneous
E1000-E1599	Additional chemicals

Preservatives: Keeping Food Safe

Preservatives prevent the growth of bacteria, molds, and yeasts that cause food spoilage and foodborne illness. Without preservatives, the modern food supply chain would be impossible, and food waste and foodborne disease rates would be dramatically higher.

Common Preservatives

E-Number	Common Name	What It Does	Found In	Safety Status
E200	Sorbic acid	Inhibits mold and yeast growth	Cheese, wine, baked goods	Safe (EFSA/FDA); ADI 25 mg/kg/day
E202	Potassium sorbate	Same as sorbic acid (potassium salt)	Dried fruits, yogurt, beverages	Safe (EFSA/FDA); widely used
E210	Benzoic acid	Antimicrobial (effective at low pH)	Soft drinks, pickles, sauces	Safe at ADI 5 mg/kg/day; avoid combining with vitamin C in acidic conditions
E211	Sodium benzoate	Same as benzoic acid (sodium salt)	Soft drinks, salad dressings	Safe at ADI; concern about benzene formation in acidic beverages with ascorbic acid (levels typically very low)
E220	Sulfur dioxide	Antioxidant and antimicrobial	Wine, dried fruits, dried potatoes	Safe for most; triggers asthma in sulfite-sensitive individuals (~1% of population)
E250	Sodium nitrite	Prevents Clostridium botulinum (botulism); cures meat	Bacon, ham, salami, hot dogs	Safe at regulated levels; debate about nitrosamine formation at high temperatures
E252	Potassium nitrate	Converts to nitrite for curing	Cured meats, some cheeses	Safe at regulated levels; vegetables provide ~80% of dietary nitrate
E270	Lactic acid	pH reduction, antimicrobial	Fermented foods, beverages, confectionery	Safe; naturally produced during fermentation
E280	Propionic acid	Mold prevention	Bread, baked goods	Safe (EFSA/FDA); naturally present in Swiss cheese
E281	Sodium propionate	Same as propionic acid (sodium salt)	Bread, baked goods	Safe; one study raised behavioral questions in children (not replicated)

The Nitrite Debate

Sodium nitrite (E250) deserves special attention because it is one of the most debated preservatives. Nitrite serves two essential functions in cured meats: it prevents the growth of Clostridium botulinum (the bacterium that causes botulism, a potentially fatal illness) and it gives cured meats their characteristic pink color and flavor.

The concern is that under high-heat cooking conditions, nitrite can react with amino acids to form nitrosamines, some of which are carcinogenic in animal studies. This is one of the reasons IARC classified processed meat as a Group 1 carcinogen in 2015.

However, context matters enormously. Approximately 80 percent of the nitrate in the human diet comes from vegetables, particularly leafy greens and beets, where it is converted to nitrite by oral bacteria. The nitrite from a serving of arugula or spinach often exceeds the nitrite from a serving of bacon. "Uncured" or "no nitrate added" meat products typically use celery powder or cherry powder as a natural source of nitrate, which converts to the same nitrite in the product. The actual nitrite levels in these "natural" products are often comparable to conventionally cured products.

Colorings: Making Food Visually Appealing

Food colorings serve a purely aesthetic function but are among the most controversial additives, primarily due to concerns about behavioral effects in children.

Common Food Colorings

E-Number	Common Name	Color	Source	Safety Status
E100	Curcumin	Yellow	Turmeric	Safe (EFSA/FDA); ADI 3 mg/kg/day
E101	Riboflavin	Yellow	Vitamin B2 (synthetic or natural)	Safe; is a vitamin
E102	Tartrazine	Yellow	Synthetic azo dye	Safe at ADI; voluntary UK warning label for children
E110	Sunset Yellow	Orange	Synthetic azo dye	Safe at ADI; voluntary UK warning label
E120	Carmine (Cochineal)	Red	Cochineal insects	Safe; rare allergic reactions; not suitable for vegans
E129	Allura Red	Red	Synthetic azo dye	Safe at ADI (FDA/EFSA); banned in some countries
E133	Brilliant Blue	Blue	Synthetic	Safe (FDA/EFSA); poorly absorbed
E150a	Caramel I (plain)	Brown	Heated sugar	Safe
E150d	Caramel IV (sulfite ammonia)	Brown	Sugar treated with ammonia and sulfite	Safe at ADI; contains 4-MEI (under review)
E160a	Beta-carotene	Orange	Carrots, palm oil, synthetic	Safe; provitamin A
E160b	Annatto	Orange-yellow	Achiote seeds	Safe; long history of use
E162	Beetroot Red	Red	Beet juice	Safe; natural pigment
E171	Titanium dioxide	White	Mineral	Banned in EU (2022) due to genotoxicity concerns; still FDA-approved in US

The Southampton Study and Children's Behavior

The most influential study on food colorings and behavior was the Southampton study (McCann et al., 2007), published in The Lancet. This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial found that a mixture of six artificial food colorings and sodium benzoate modestly increased hyperactive behavior in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the general population.

This study led to voluntary labeling requirements in the UK ("may have an adverse effect on activity and attention in children") and prompted some manufacturers to reformulate products with natural colorings. However, the effect sizes were small, the study tested mixtures rather than individual colorings, and subsequent reviews have found the evidence inconsistent. EFSA reviewed the data and concluded that the available evidence did not warrant changing the ADIs of the individual colorings tested.

Emulsifiers, Stabilizers, and Thickeners

These additives maintain the texture, consistency, and stability of food products. Without them, salad dressings would separate, ice cream would crystallize, and many processed foods would have unacceptable mouthfeel.

Common Emulsifiers and Thickeners

E-Number	Common Name	Function	Found In	Safety Status
E322	Lecithin	Emulsifier	Chocolate, margarine, baked goods	Safe; naturally found in eggs, soy
E330	Citric acid	Acidity regulator, antioxidant	Soft drinks, canned foods, sweets	Safe; naturally present in citrus
E400	Alginic acid	Thickener, stabilizer	Ice cream, salad dressing	Safe; derived from brown seaweed
E407	Carrageenan	Gelling agent, thickener	Dairy alternatives, deli meats, ice cream	Controversial; EFSA re-evaluated in 2018, safe at ADI 75 mg/kg/day; some in vitro inflammation concerns not replicated in vivo
E410	Locust bean gum	Thickener	Ice cream, cream cheese	Safe; from carob tree seeds
E412	Guar gum	Thickener	Ice cream, sauces, gluten-free baking	Safe; from guar beans
E415	Xanthan gum	Thickener, stabilizer	Salad dressings, sauces, gluten-free baking	Safe (EFSA/FDA); produced by bacterial fermentation
E433	Polysorbate 80	Emulsifier	Ice cream, cosmetics, vaccines	Safe at ADI; animal study concerns about gut barrier (Chassaing et al., 2015) not confirmed in humans at dietary levels
E440	Pectin	Gelling agent	Jams, jellies, confectionery	Safe; naturally present in fruit
E460	Cellulose	Anti-caking, bulking	Shredded cheese, supplements	Safe; plant cell wall fiber
E466	Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)	Thickener	Ice cream, beverages, baked goods	Safe at ADI; same gut barrier animal study concerns as polysorbate 80
E471	Mono- and diglycerides	Emulsifier	Bread, margarine, ice cream	Safe; digested like normal dietary fat
E491	Sorbitan monostearate	Emulsifier	Chocolate, cake mixes	Safe at ADI

The Carrageenan Controversy

Carrageenan (E407) has been the subject of persistent online concern, driven largely by the work of one researcher (Joanne Tobacman) who published studies suggesting that degraded carrageenan (poligeenan) causes intestinal inflammation. However, food-grade carrageenan and poligeenan are distinct substances with different molecular weights, and the concerns about poligeenan were inappropriately extrapolated to food-grade carrageenan.

EFSA's 2018 re-evaluation concluded that food-grade carrageenan is safe at an ADI of 75 mg/kg/day, and the FDA maintains its GRAS status. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) also considers it safe. While some individuals report digestive discomfort with carrageenan, this is anecdotal and may reflect individual sensitivity rather than a general safety concern.

Flavor Enhancers

E-Number	Common Name	Function	Found In	Safety Status
E620	Glutamic acid	Flavor enhancer (umami)	Naturally in tomatoes, cheese, mushrooms	Safe; naturally occurring amino acid
E621	Monosodium glutamate (MSG)	Flavor enhancer (umami)	Asian cuisine, snack foods, soups	Safe (EFSA/FDA/WHO); see section below
E627	Disodium guanylate	Flavor enhancer (synergistic with MSG)	Snack foods, instant noodles	Safe
E631	Disodium inosinate	Flavor enhancer (synergistic with MSG)	Snack foods, processed meats	Safe
E635	Disodium ribonucleotides	Combined E627 and E631	Snack foods, crackers	Safe

MSG: The Most Misunderstood Additive

Monosodium glutamate is perhaps the most unjustly maligned food additive in history. The "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" described by Robert Ho Man Kwok in a 1968 letter to the New England Journal of Medicine has been thoroughly debunked by subsequent research.

Key evidence points:

• Multiple double-blind, placebo-controlled trials have failed to demonstrate consistent adverse reactions to MSG at typical dietary levels (Freeman, 2006)
• The glutamate in MSG is chemically identical to the glutamate naturally abundant in tomatoes, parmesan cheese, mushrooms, and breast milk
• The human body produces approximately 50 grams of glutamate daily for normal metabolic functions
• EFSA established an ADI of 30 mg/kg/day for added glutamate in 2017, but noted that typical dietary exposure from added MSG is well below this threshold
• The FDA classifies MSG as GRAS with no limit on use levels

The persistent fear of MSG has been critiqued by food historians and scientists as having xenophobic origins, specifically targeting Asian cuisine while ignoring the identical glutamate in Western foods like parmesan cheese, Worcestershire sauce, and tomato soup.

Antioxidants

E-Number	Common Name	Function	Found In	Safety Status
E300	Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)	Antioxidant, preservative	Beverages, canned goods, cured meats	Safe; is a vitamin
E306	Tocopherol (Vitamin E)	Antioxidant (fat-soluble)	Vegetable oils, margarine	Safe; is a vitamin
E307	Alpha-tocopherol	Antioxidant	Oils, cereals	Safe
E310	Propyl gallate	Antioxidant (synthetic)	Fats, oils, chewing gum	Safe at ADI 0.5 mg/kg/day
E319	TBHQ (tert-butylhydroquinone)	Antioxidant (synthetic)	Fast food, crackers, microwave popcorn	Safe at ADI 0.7 mg/kg/day; some in vitro immune concerns not confirmed in vivo
E320	BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole)	Antioxidant	Cereals, chewing gum, fats	Safe at ADI; IARC Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic) based on animal data at very high doses
E321	BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene)	Antioxidant	Cereals, fats, packaging	Safe at ADI 0.25 mg/kg/day; no carcinogenicity classification

Sweeteners

Non-nutritive sweeteners are covered in detail in our companion article on artificial sweeteners and weight. The key E-numbers are:

E-Number	Common Name	Sweetness vs Sugar
E950	Acesulfame-K	200x
E951	Aspartame	200x
E952	Cyclamate	30-50x
E953	Isomalt	0.5x (sugar alcohol)
E954	Saccharin	300-400x
E955	Sucralose	600x
E960	Steviol glycosides	200-400x
E965	Maltitol	0.75x (sugar alcohol)
E967	Xylitol	1x (sugar alcohol)
E968	Erythritol	0.7x (sugar alcohol)

The "Clean Label" Trend: Marketing vs Science

The clean label movement, which promotes products with shorter ingredient lists and familiar-sounding ingredients, reflects consumer psychology more than food safety science. Several points deserve consideration:

Chemical names sound scary but are not inherently dangerous. Ascorbic acid is vitamin C. Tocopherol is vitamin E. Alpha-linolenic acid is an essential omega-3 fat. Sodium chloride is table salt. The unfamiliarity of a chemical name tells you nothing about its safety.

"Natural" does not mean safer. Many natural substances are toxic (arsenic, cyanide, ricin are all natural), and many synthetic additives have excellent safety profiles after decades of use and study. The naturalistic fallacy, the assumption that natural equals safe and synthetic equals dangerous, is not supported by toxicological evidence.

Removing additives has trade-offs. Eliminating preservatives reduces shelf life, increases food waste, and can increase the risk of foodborne illness. Removing emulsifiers changes food texture and may require compensating with additional fat or sugar.

Some reformulations are genuinely positive. Replacing artificial colorings with natural alternatives in children's foods is a reasonable precautionary measure given the Southampton study results. Reducing sodium benzoate in acidic beverages with high ascorbic acid content addresses a legitimate (if small) benzene formation concern. Evidence-based reformulation is different from blanket chemophobia.

How to Evaluate Additive Safety Claims

When you encounter a claim that a food additive is dangerous, apply these critical thinking filters:

1. Who is making the claim? Peer-reviewed regulatory assessments from EFSA, FDA, and JECFA carry far more weight than blog posts, documentaries, or advocacy organizations with specific agendas.

2. What type of study? In vitro (cell) studies and animal studies at extreme doses do not reliably predict human effects at dietary exposure levels. Human clinical trials and epidemiological studies are more relevant.

3. What is the dose? Toxicology is fundamentally about dose. Water is toxic at sufficient doses. The ADI represents the amount safely consumed daily for a lifetime, set 100 times below the level showing no adverse effects in the most sensitive animal species tested.

4. Is the finding replicated? Single studies, even well-designed ones, can produce false positives. Consistent findings across multiple independent studies are far more convincing.

5. What do regulatory agencies say? EFSA, FDA, and JECFA continuously review the evidence on approved additives. If a safety concern is validated, ADIs are revised or additives are withdrawn (as with the EU ban on titanium dioxide in 2022).

Using Nutrola to Understand What You Eat

One practical approach to navigating food additives is to become more aware of what you actually consume regularly. When you log foods in Nutrola, you build a picture of your typical dietary patterns over time. If you are concerned about specific additives, reviewing your food log can help identify the main sources in your personal diet and guide targeted substitutions where you feel they are warranted, rather than making sweeping changes based on generalized fears.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are E-numbers bad for you?

No. E-numbers are simply a European classification system for approved food additives. Every E-number substance has been evaluated for safety by EFSA and approved for use at levels well below those showing any adverse effects. Many E-numbers are familiar substances: E300 is vitamin C, E330 is citric acid (found in lemons), E160a is beta-carotene (found in carrots). The E-number itself indicates regulatory approval, not danger.

Is MSG actually bad for you?

No. Decades of double-blind, placebo-controlled research have found no consistent evidence that MSG causes adverse reactions at typical dietary levels. The "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" has not been validated in controlled studies. MSG is classified as GRAS by the FDA and is considered safe by EFSA, WHO, and virtually every national food safety authority. The glutamate in MSG is identical to the glutamate naturally present in tomatoes, cheese, and mushrooms.

Should I avoid all food preservatives?

No. Preservatives serve the critical function of preventing foodborne illness and extending shelf life. Without sodium nitrite, the risk of botulism in cured meats would be significant. Without sorbates and benzoates, many foods would spoil rapidly. All approved preservatives have been tested extensively and have established safe intake levels. Avoiding all preservatives is neither practical nor evidence-based for most people.

Are natural food colorings safer than artificial ones?

Not necessarily. "Natural" colorings like carmine (E120, from insects) can cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals, while many synthetic colorings like Brilliant Blue (E133) are poorly absorbed and have excellent safety profiles. The main evidence-based reason to prefer natural colorings is the modest and inconsistent evidence from the Southampton study suggesting that a mixture of synthetic colorings may increase hyperactivity in some children. For adults without food sensitivities, the distinction is largely academic.

What is the most dangerous food additive?

No approved food additive is "dangerous" at the levels found in food. The additives with the most active scientific debate are sodium nitrite (due to nitrosamine formation at high cooking temperatures), titanium dioxide (recently banned in the EU), and certain synthetic colorings (due to the childhood behavioral evidence). However, even for these substances, the risks at typical dietary exposure are very small compared to major dietary risk factors like excess calorie intake, excessive alcohol, and insufficient fruit and vegetable consumption.

How can I find out what additives are in my food?

In most countries, all food additives must be declared on the ingredient label, either by their common name or E-number (in the EU). Reading ingredient labels is the most direct method. When you log packaged foods in Nutrola using the barcode scanner or AI food recognition, the nutritional breakdown helps you understand the overall composition of what you are eating, even if individual additive amounts are not separately quantified.

Conclusion

Food additives are a necessary and heavily regulated part of the modern food supply. The E-number system and FDA GRAS process represent some of the most rigorous safety evaluation frameworks in consumer product regulation. While no system is perfect and ongoing vigilance is warranted, the evidence does not support the widespread fear that food additives as a category are harmful.

The most productive approach is selective and evidence-based: understand what specific additives do, recognize that dose determines toxicity, trust the regulatory process while remaining open to updates (as with the EU titanium dioxide decision), and focus your dietary attention on the factors with the largest evidence base for health impact, namely total calorie intake, fruit and vegetable consumption, fiber intake, and limiting ultra-processed foods not because of individual additives but because of their overall nutritional profile.

References:

• McCann, D., Barrett, A., Cooper, A., Crumpler, D., Dalen, L., Grimshaw, K., ... & Stevenson, J. (2007). Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet, 370(9598), 1560-1567.
• Freeman, M. (2006). Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: a literature review. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 18(10), 482-486.
• EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources (ANS). (2017). Re-evaluation of glutamic acid–glutamates. EFSA Journal, 15(7), e04910.
• Chassaing, B., Koren, O., Goodrich, J. K., Poole, A. C., Srinivasan, S., Ley, R. E., & Gewirtz, A. T. (2015). Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome. Nature, 519(7541), 92-96.
• EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings. (2018). Re-evaluation of carrageenan (E 407) and processed Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a). EFSA Journal, 16(4), e05238.